Social Structure and Demographics

Theoretical approaches

• Functionalism
  • Society as a living organism; structure and function of each part
  • Function: beneficial consequence of actions
    • Manifest: intended (e.g., medical societies improve knowledge)
    • Latent: unintended (e.g., social networking)
  • Deviance arises if members cannot contribute
• Conflict theory
  • Power differentials drive societal conflicts
• Symbolic interactionism
  • Interactions shaped by shared meanings and symbols
  • Symbols can vary by culture (thumbs up = approval/offense)
• Social constructionism
  • Society's reality is constructed through communication
  • Applies to abstract and physical things (e.g., money, gender roles, work ethic)
• Rational choice theory
  • Individuals make decisions by weighing benefits vs harms
  • Social interactions analyzed like mental pros and cons
  • Altruism complicates predictions
• Exchange theory
  • Behaviors guided by rewards/punishments in groups
  • Positive feedback reinforces behavior (operant conditioning)
• Feminist theory
  • Examines gender-based inequalities
  • Gender roles: men = breadwinners, women = homemakers
  • Institutional discrimination → glass ceiling, financial inequality
  • Women more objectified; biases against non-traditional roles

Social institutions

• Family
  • Influenced by culture, age, race, values
  • Kinship patterns vary (e.g., Hawaiian families = all cousins)
  • High divorce rates
  • Domestic violence = leading cause of injury in women
  • Elder/child abuse present across social classes
  • Mandated reporters: must report child/elder abuse, not domestic violence
• Education
  • Provides information/cognitive skills + hidden curriculum (norms, ethics, politics)
  • Teacher expectancy: high demands ↑ student success
  • Lower SES → worse education → poorer health outcomes
• Religion
  • Organized social activities around beliefs/practices
  • Religiosity = degree of religiousness
  • Types:
    • Church: large, universal
    • Sect: offshoot group
    • Cult: extreme philosophy
  • Secularization: shift away from religion
  • Fundamentalism: adherence to old beliefs
• Government
  • Organizes political and capital relationships; affects all institutions
  • Types:
    • Democracy: elective officials, universal vote
    • Monarchy: royal ruler, powers vary
    • Dictatorship: single person holds power
    • Theocracy: religious leaders hold power
• Economy
  • Capitalist: free market, consumer-driven, division of labor
  • Socialist: collective industries, profit distributed by contribution
• Healthcare and medicine
  • Goals: access, disease prevention, holistic approach
  • Patients expected to take ownership for health
  • Some disorders now medicalized

Material culture

• Tangible objects/artifacts representing culture
• Example: American flag, BBQ, baseball, apple pie
• Visible in ceremonies

Symbolic culture

• Nonmaterial ideas representing group values
• Example: life, liberty, pursuit of happiness
• Material culture embodies symbolic culture
• Change slower than material culture → culture lag
  • Example: privacy norms vs smartphones

Language

• Complex system transmitting culture
• Understanding language = understanding culture

Values, beliefs, norms, rituals

• Values: principles dictating importance/ethics
• Beliefs: accepted truths
• Norms: societal rules guiding behavior
• Rituals: formalized ceremonies (e.g., birthdays, holidays)

Evolution and human culture

• Cultural transmission preserves information across generations
• Cultural traits can influence genetic selection
  • Example: lactose tolerance evolved due to dairy reliance

Age

• "Graying of America": baby boomer cohort growing fastest
• Ageism: discrimination based on age

Gender

• Social construct corresponding to sex traits
• Inequality/segregation possible (sports, bathrooms)
• Some cultures recognize >2 genders

Race and ethnicity

• Race: social construct based on superficial traits
• Racialization: establishing group as a race
• Racial formation: identity fluid
• Ethnicity: culture, language, nationality, religion; can be symbolic
  • Example: Irish ethnicity celebrated only on St. Patrick's Day
• Health disparities exist among racial/ethnic groups

Sexual orientation

• Heterosexual, bisexual, homosexual
• Orientation influences identity, stress levels
• Kinsey scale: 1 = straight, 6 = gay
• LGBTQIA health disparities (e.g., HIV, cervical screening)

Immigration status

• Barriers: language, healthcare, legal status
• Intersectionality: interplay of multiple demographic factors
• Undocumented status → increased vulnerability

Demographic shifts

• Population doubled since 1950s
• Population pyramids: age group histograms
• Fertility rate: # children per woman in lifetime (primary population driver)
• Mortality rate: # deaths per unit time, crude rate = total population rate
• Migration:
  • Immigration = entering
  • Emigration = leaving
  • Pull factors attract, push factors repel

Demographic transition

• Preindustrial: high birth/death rates
• Improvements (healthcare, nutrition) ↓ death rates
• Industrialization, contraception, women's rights ↓ birth rates
• Industrialized: low birth/death rates

Malthusian theory

• Exponential population growth can outpace food → social issues

Social movement

• Promote or resist social change
• Relative deprivation: decrease in resources/agency
• Proactive: promote, reactive: resist

Globalization

• Integrates global economy, free trade
• Positive/negative effects, especially in health sector

Urbanization

• Dense areas attract migration
• Economic opportunities fuel urbanization
• Challenges: ghettos (minority concentration), slums (high density, low housing quality)